Dall, S. R. X. & Johnstone, R. A. Managing uncertainty: Information and insurance under the risk of starvation. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 357, 1519–1526 (2002).
Balogh, A. C. V., Gamberale-Stille, G. & Leimar, O. Learning and the mimicry spectrum: from quasi-Bates to super-Müller. Anim. Behav. 76, 1591–1599 (2008).
Barnett, C. A., Bateson, M. & Rowe, C. Better the devil you know: Avian predators find variation in prey toxicity aversive. Biol. Lett. 10, 20140533 (2014).
Ruxton, G. D., Allen, W. L., Sherratt, T. N. & Speed, M. P. Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Aposematism, and Mimicry 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press, 2018).
Sherratt, T. N. State-dependent risk-taking by predators in systems with defended prey. Oikos 103, 93–100 (2003).
Sherratt, T. N., Speed, M. S. & Ruxton, G. D. Natural selection on unpalatable species imposed by state-dependent foraging behaviour. J. Theor. Biol. 228, 217–226 (2004).
Gamberale-Stille, G. & Guilford, T. Automimicry destabilizes aposematism: Predator sample-and-reject behaviour may provide a solution. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 271, 2621–2625 (2004).
Skelhorn, J. & Rowe, C. Avian predators taste-reject aposematic prey on the basis of their chemical defence. Biol. Lett. 2, 348–350 (2006).
Skelhorn, J. & Rowe, C. Automimic frequency influences the foraging decisions of avian predators on aposematic prey. Anim. Behav. 74, 1563–1572 (2007).
Brower, J. V. Z. Experimental studies of mimicry. IV. The reactions of starlings to different proportions of models and mimics. Am. Nat. 94, 271–282 (1960).
Huheey, J. E. Studies in warning coloration and mimicry VIII. Further evidence for a frequency-dependent model of predation. J. Herpetol. 14, 223–230 (1980).
Avery, M. L. Application of mimicry theory to bird damage control. J. Wildl. Manag. 49, 1116–1121 (1985).
Nonacs, P. Foraging in a dynamic mimicry complex. Am. Nat. 126, 165–180 (1985).
Rowland, H. M., Ihalainen, E., Lindström, L., Mappes, J. & Speed, M. P. Co-mimics have a mutualistic relationship despite unequal defences. Nature 448, 64–67 (2007).
Skelhorn, J. & Rowe, C. Predators’ toxin burdens influence their strategic decisions to eat toxic prey. Curr. Biol. 17, 1479–1483 (2007).
Jones, R. S., Davis, S. C. & Speed, M. P. Defence cheats can degrade protection of chemically defended prey. Ethology 119, 52–57 (2013).
Guilford, T. “Go-slow” signalling and the problem of automimicry. J. Theor. Biol. 170, 311–316 (1994).
Skelhorn, J. & Rowe, C. Taste-rejection by predators and the evolution of unpalatability in prey. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 60, 550–555 (2006).
Chatelain, M., Halpin, C. G. & Rowe, C. Ambient temperature influences birds’ decisions to eat toxic prey. Anim. Behav. 86, 733–740 (2013).
Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L. & McMahon, T. A. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11, 1633–1644 (2007).
Yamazaki, Y., Pagani-Núñez, E., Sota, T. & Barnett C. R. A. The truth is in the detail: predators attack aposematic prey less intensely than other prey types. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 131, 332–343 (2020).
Valkonnen, J. K. et al. Variation in predator species abundance can cause variable selection pressure on warning signalling prey. Ecol. Evol. 2, 1971–1976 (2011).
Nokelainen, O., Valkonen, J., Lindstedt, C. & Mappes, J. Changes in predator community structure shifts the efficacy of two warning signals in Arctiid moths. J. Anim. Ecol. 83, 598–605 (2014).
Bibby, C. J., Burgess, N. D., Hill, D. A. &. Mustoe S. H. Bird Census Techniques (2nd Edition). (Academic Press, London, 2000).
Tsujimoto, D., Lin, C.-H., Kurihara, N. & Barnett, C. R. A. Citizen science in the class-room: the consistency of student collected data and its value in ecological hypothesis testing. Ornithological Sci. 18, 39–47 (2019).
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B. & Walker, S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Software 67, 1–48 (2015).
Rainey, C. Dealing with separation in logistic regression models. Polit. Anal. 24, 339–355 (2016).
Nakagawa, S. & Schielzeth, H. A general and simple method for obtaining R2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Meth. Ecol. Evol. 4, 133–142 (2012).
Hothorn, T,. Bretz, F. & Westfall, P. Simultaneous Inference in General Parametric Models. Biometrical. J. 50, 346–363 (2008).
Paradis, E. & Schliep, K. Ape 5.0: An environment for modern phylogenetics and evolutionary analyses in R. Bioinformatics 35, 526–528 (2019).
Barnett, C. R. A., Ringhofer, M. & Suzuki, T. N. Differences in predatory behavior among three bird species when attacking chemically defended and undefended prey. J. Ethol. 39, 29–37 (2021).
Carroll, J. & Sherratt, T. N. A direct comparison of the effectiveness of two anti-predator strategies under field conditions. J. Zool. 291, 279–285 (2013).
Krebs, C. J. Ecological Methodology (2nd Edition). (Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA, 1999).
Oksanen, J. vegan: Community Ecology Package. (2020).
R Development Core Team. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. URL http://www.Rproject.org (2017).
Marples, N. M., Speed, M. P. & Thomas, R. J. An individual-based profitability spectrum for understanding interactions between predators and their prey. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 125, 1–13 (2018).
Boyden, T. C. Butterfly palatability and mimicry: experiments with anolis lizards. Evolution 30, 73–81 (1976).
Järvi, T., Sillén-Tullberg, B. & Wiklund, C. The cost of being aposematic. An experimental study of predation on larvae of Papilio machaon by the Great Tit Parus major. Oikos 36, 267–272 (1981).
Wiklund, C. & Järvi, T. Survival of distasteful insects after being attacked by naïve birds: a reappraisal of aposematic coloration evolving through individual selection. Evolution 36, 998–1002 (1982).
Pinheiro, C. E. G. & Campos, V. C. Do rufous-tailed jacamars (Galbula ruficauda) play with aposematic butterflies. Ornitol. Neotrop. 24, 1–3 (2013).
Halpin, C. G. & Rowe, C. The effect of distastefulness and conspicuous coloration on post-attack rejection behaviour of predators and survival of prey. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 120, 236–244 (2017).
Sillén-Tullberg, B. Higher survival of an aposematic than of a cryptic form of a distasteful bug. Oecologia 67, 411–415 (1985).
Fisher, R. A. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (Clarenden Press, 1930).
Chai, P. Field observations and feeding experiments on the responses of rufous-tailed jacamars butterflies in a tropical rainforest. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 29, 161–189 (1986).
Wang, L.-Y., Huang, W.-S., Tang, H.-C., Huang, L.-C. & Lin, C.-P. Too hard to swallow: A secret secondary defence of an aposematic insect. J. Exp. Biol. 221, jeb172486 (2018).
Summers, K., Speed, M. P., Blount, J. D. & Stuckert, A. M. M. Are aposematic signals honest? A review. J. Evol. Biol. 28, 1583–1599 (2015).
Holen, Ø. H. Disentangling taste and toxicity in aposematic prey. Proc. R. Soc. B 280, 20122588 (2013).
Speed, M. P. & Franks, D. W. Antagonistic evolution in an aposematic predator-prey system. Evolution 68, 2996–3007 (2014).
