International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas. https://diabetesatlas.org/2021. Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
Xu G, Liu B, Sun Y, Du Y, Snetselaar LG, Hu FB, et al. Prevalence of diagnosed type 1 and type 2 diabetes among US adults in 2016 and 2017: population based study. BMJ. 2018;362:k1497.
World Health Organization. Diabetes Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes. Accessed 30 Aug 2022.
Thomas MC, Cooper ME, Zimmet P. Changing epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus and associated chronic kidney disease. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2016;12:73–81.
Gheith O, Farouk N, Nampoory N, Halim MA, Al-Otaibi T. Diabetic kidney disease: world wide difference of prevalence and risk factors. J Nephropharmacol. 2016;5:49–56.
Fu H, Liu S, Bastacky SI, Wang X, Tian X-J, Zhou D. Diabetic kidney diseases revisited: a new perspective for a new era. Mol Metab. 2019;30:250–63.
Li H, Lu W, Wang A, Jiang H, Lyu J. Changing epidemiology of chronic kidney disease as a result of type 2 diabetes mellitus from 1990 to 2017: estimates from Global Burden of Disease 2017. J Diabetes Investig. 2021;3:346–56.
Górriz JL, Soler MJ, Navarro-González JF, García-Carro C, Puchades MJ, D’Marco L, et al. GLP-1 receptor agonists and diabetic kidney disease: a call of attention to nephrologists. J Clin Med. 2020;9:947.
Rawshani A, Rawshani A, Franzén S, Sattar N, Eliasson B, Svensson A-M, et al. Risk factors, mortality, and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:633–44.
Alicic RZ, Johnson EJ, Tuttle KR. Inflammatory mechanisms as new biomarkers and therapeutic targets for diabetic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2018;25:181–91.
Alicic RZ, Rooney MT, Tuttle KR. Diabetic kidney disease: challenges, progress, and possibilities. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;12:2032–45.
Pichler R, Afkarian M, Dieter BP, Tuttle KR. Immunity and inflammation in diabetic kidney disease: translating mechanisms to biomarkers and treatment targets. Am J Physiol Ren Physiol. 2017;312:F716–f31.
Cappelli C, Tellez A, Jara C, Alarcón S, Torres A, Mendoza P, et al. The TGF-β profibrotic cascade targets ecto-5′-nucleotidase gene in proximal tubule epithelial cells and is a traceable marker of progressive diabetic kidney disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol basis Dis. 2020;1866:165796.
Chagnac A, Herman M, Zingerman B, Erman A, Rozen-Zvi B, Hirsh J, et al. Obesity-induced glomerular hyperfiltration: its involvement in the pathogenesis of tubular sodium reabsorption. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:3946–52.
Benzing T, Salant D. Insights into glomerular filtration and albuminuria. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:1437–46.
Penno G, Solini A, Bonora E, Fondelli C, Orsi E, Zerbini G, et al. Clinical significance of nonalbuminuric renal impairment in type 2 diabetes. J Hypertens. 2011;29:1802–9.
Dwyer JP, Parving HH, Hunsicker LG, Ravid M, Remuzzi G, Lewis JB. Renal dysfunction in the presence of normoalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes: Results from the DEMAND study. Cardiorenal Med. 2012;2:1–10.
Deng L, Li W, Xu G. Update on pathogenesis and diagnosis flow of normoalbuminuric diabetes with renal insufficiency. Eur J Med Res. 2021;26:144.
Tervaert TWC, Mooyaart AL, Amann K, Cohen AH, Cook HT, Drachenberg CB, et al. Pathologic classification of diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21:556–63.
Ballew SH, Matsushita K. Cardiovascular risk prediction in ckd. Semin Nephrol. 2018;38:208–16.
American Diabetes Association. 11. Microvascular complications and foot care: Standards of medical care in diabetes-2020. Diabetes Care. 2020;43:S135–s51.
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Diabetes Work Group. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3:1–150.
Perkins BA, Ficociello LH, Ostrander BE, Silva KH, Weinberg J, Warram JH, et al. Microalbuminuria and the risk for early progressive renal function decline in type 1 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18:1353–61.
Delgado C, Baweja M, Crews DC, Eneanya ND, Gadegbeku CA, Inker LA, et al. A unifying approach for gfr estimation: recommendations of the NKF-ASN task force on reassessing the inclusion of race in diagnosing kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2022;79:268–88 e1.
Williams WW, Hogan JW, Ingelfinger JR. Time to eliminate health care disparities in the estimation of kidney function. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:1804–6.
Inker LA, Eneanya ND, Coresh J, Tighiouart H, Wang D, Sang Y, et al. New creatinine- and cystatin c-based equations to estimate gfr without race. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:1737–49.
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Diabetes Work Group. KDIGO 2020 clinical practice guideline for diabetes management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2020;98:S1–s115.
Chen DC, Shlipak MG, Scherzer R, Bauer SR, Potok OA, Rifkin DE, et al. Association of intraindividual difference in estimated glomerular filtration rate by creatinine vs cystatin c and end-stage kidney disease and mortality. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5:e2148940.
Bargnoux A-S, Piéroni L, Cristol J-P, Kuster N, Delanaye P, Carlier M-C, et al. Multicenter evaluation of cystatin c measurement after assay standardization. Clin Chem. 2017;63:833–41.
Hemmelgarn BR, Manns BJ, Lloyd A, James MT, Klarenbach S, Quinn RR, et al. Relation between kidney function, proteinuria, and adverse outcomes. JAMA. 2010;303:423–9.
Matsushita K, van der Velde M, Astor BC, Woodward M, Levey AS, de Jong PE, et al. Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010;375:2073–81.
American Diabetes Association. 6. Glycemic targets: standards of medical care in diabetes-2020. Diabetes Care. 2020;43:S66–s76.
Doshi SM, Friedman AN. Diagnosis and management of type 2 diabetic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;12:1366–73.
Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes Blood Pressure Work Group. KDIGO 2021 clinical practice guideline for the management of blood pressure in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2021;99:S1–s87.
American Diabetes Association. 10. Cardiovascular disease and risk management: standards of medical care in diabetes—2021. Diabetes Care. 2020;44:S125–S50.
Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes Lipid Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for lipid management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3:259–305.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ. 1998;317:703–13.
Foretz M, Guigas B, Viollet B. Understanding the glucoregulatory mechanisms of metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2019;15:569–89.
Lv W, Wang X, Xu Q, Lu W. Mechanisms and characteristics of sulfonylureas and glinides. Curr Top Med Chem. 2020;20:37–56.
Hsia DS, Grove O, Cefalu WT. An update on SGLT2 inhibitors for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2017;24:73–9.
Perkovic V, Jardine MJ, Neal B, Bompoint S, Heerspink HJL, Charytan DM, et al. Canagliflozin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:2295–306.
Gerstein HC, Colhoun HM, Dagenais GR, Diaz R, Lakshmanan M, Pais P, et al. Dulaglutide and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: an exploratory analysis of the REWIND randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2019;394:131–8.
Heerspink HJL, Stefánsson BV, Correa-Rotter R, Chertow GM, Greene T, Hou F-F, et al. Dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1436–46.
Wanner C, Inzucchi SE, Lachin JM, Fitchett D, von Eynatten M, Mattheus M, et al. Empagliflozin and progression of kidney disease in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:323–34.
Zinman B, Inzucchi SE, Lachin JM, Wanner C, Ferrari R, Fitchett D, et al. Rationale, design, and baseline characteristics of a randomized, placebo-controlled cardiovascular outcome trial of empagliflozin (EMPA-REG OUTCOME™). Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2014;13:102.
Neal B, Perkovic V, Matthews DR. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:2099.
Wiviott SD, Raz I, Bonaca MP, Mosenzon O, Kato ET, Cahn A, et al. Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2018;380:347–57.
Cannon CP, Pratley R, Dagogo-Jack S, Mancuso J, Huyck S, Masiukiewicz U, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes with ertugliflozin in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1425–35.
Packer M, Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, Pocock SJ, Carson P, et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with empagliflozin in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1413–24.
Neumiller JJ. Differential chemistry (structure), mechanism of action, and pharmacology of GLP-1 receptor agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors. J Am Pharm Assoc (2003). 2009;49(Suppl 1):S16–29.
Mann JFE, Ørsted DD, Brown-Frandsen K, Marso SP, Poulter NR, Rasmussen S, et al. Liraglutide and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:839–48.
Hernandez AF, Green JB, Janmohamed S, D’Agostino RB Sr, Granger CB, Jones NP, et al. Albiglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Harmony Outcomes): a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;392:1519–29.
Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, Eliaschewitz FG, Jódar E, Leiter LA, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1834–44.
Clegg LE, Penland RC, Bachina S, Boulton DW, Thuresson M, Heerspink HJL, et al. Effects of exenatide and open-label SGLT2 inhibitor treatment, given in parallel or sequentially, on mortality and cardiovascular and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: insights from the EXSCEL trial. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2019;18:138.
Alicic RZ, Cox EJ, Neumiller JJ, Tuttle KR. Incretin drugs in diabetic kidney disease: biological mechanisms and clinical evidence. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2021;17:227–44.
Tuttle KR, Lakshmanan MC, Rayner B, Busch RS, Zimmermann AG, Woodward DB, et al. Dulaglutide versus insulin glargine in patients with type 2 diabetes and moderate-to-severe chronic kidney disease (AWARD-7): a multicentre, open-label, randomised trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:605–17.
Agarwal R, Filippatos G, Pitt B, Anker SD, Rossing P, Joseph A, et al. Cardiovascular and kidney outcomes with finerenone in patients with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease: the FIDELITY pooled analysis. Eur Heart J. 2022;43:474–84.
Pfeffer MA, Claggett B, Diaz R, Dickstein K, Gerstein HC, Køber LV, et al. Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2247–57.
Afkarian M, Zelnick LR, Hall YN, Heagerty PJ, Tuttle K, Weiss NS, et al. Clinical manifestations of kidney disease among US adults with diabetes, 1988-2014. JAMA. 2016;316(6):602–10.
Gerstein HC, Sattar N, Rosenstock J, Ramasundarahettige C, Pratley R, Lopes RD, et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with efpeglenatide in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:896–907.
Thornberry NA, Gallwitz B. Mechanism of action of inhibitors of dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 (DPP-4). Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;23:479–86.
Diamant M, Heine RJ. Thiazolidinediones in type 2 diabetes mellitus: current clinical evidence. Drugs. 2003;63:1373–405.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet. 1998;352:837–53.
Wyatt CM, Cattran DC. Intensive glycemic control and the risk of end-stage renal disease: an ADVANCE in the management of diabetes? Kidney Int. 2016;90:8–10.
U.S. National Library of Medicine. A Reseach Study to See How Semaglutide Works Compared to Placebo in People with Type 2 Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease (FLOW) 2022 https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03819153:ClinicalTirals.gov.
U.S. National Library of Medicine. A research study to find out how semaglutide works in the kidneys compared to placebo, in people with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease (the REMODEL trial) 2022 https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT048657702022.
Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, Pitt B, Ruilope LM, Rossing P, et al. Effect of finerenone on chronic kidney disease outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:2219–29.
Pitt B, Filippatos G, Agarwal R, Anker SD, Bakris GL, Rossing P, et al. Cardiovascular Events with Finerenone in Kidney Disease and Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:2252–63.
Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, Reda D, Emanuele N, Reaven PD, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:129–39.
Ismail-Beigi F, Craven T, Banerji MA, Basile J, Calles J, Cohen RM, et al. Effect of intensive treatment of hyperglycaemia on microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: an analysis of the ACCORD randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;376:419–30.
Caruso I, Giorgino F. SGLT-2 inhibitors as cardio-renal protective agents. Metabolism. 2022;127:154937.
Barrera-Chimal J, Girerd S, Jaisser F. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists and kidney diseases: pathophysiological basis. Kidney Int. 2019;96:302–19.
Grune J, Beyhoff N, Smeir E, Chudek R, Blumrich A, Ban Z, et al. Selective mineralocorticoid receptor cofactor modulation as ,molecular basis for finerenone’s antifibrotic activity. Hypertension. 2018;71(4):599–608.
Agarwal R, Kolkhof P, Bakris G, Bauersachs J, Haller H, Wada T, et al. Steroidal and non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in cardiorenal medicine. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(2):152–61.
Frimodt-Møller M, Persson F, Rossing P. Mitigating risk of aldosterone in diabetic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2020;29:145–51.
